Section 1 - [1~]#

1. Cell - 细胞
   The basic unit of all living organisms; it is surrounded by a cell surface membrane and contains genetic material (DNA) and cytoplasm containing organelles

2. Eukaryote - 真核生物
   An organism whose cells contain a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles

3. Nucleus - 细胞核
   (plural nuclei) a relatively large organelle found in eukaryotic cells, but absent from prokaryotic cells; the nucleus contains the cell’s DNA and therefore controls the activities of the cell; it is surrounded by two membranes which together form the nuclear envelope

4. Organelle - 细胞器
   A functionally and structurally distinct part of a cell,e.g. a ribosome or mitochondrion

5. Prokaryote - 原核生物
   An organism whose cells do not contain a nucleus or any other membrane-bound organelles

6. Cell surface membrane - 细胞膜
   A very thin membrane (about 7 nm diameter) surrounding all cells; it is partially permeable and controls the exchange of materials between the cell and its environment

7. Cell wall - 细胞壁
   A wall surrounding prokaryote, plant and fungal cells; the wall contains a strengthening material which protects the cell from mechanical damage, supports it and prevents it from bursting by osmosis if the cell is surrounded by a solution with a higher water potential

8. Chloroplast - 叶绿体
   The organelle, bounded by an envelope (i.e., two membranes), in which photosynthesis takes place in eukaryotes

9. Chromatin - 染色质
   The material of which chromosomes are made, consisting of DNA, proteins and small amounts of RNA; visible as patches or fibres within the nucleus when stained

10. Chromosome - 染色体
    In the nucleus of the cells of eukaryotes, a structure made of tightly coiled chromatin (DNA, proteins and RNA) visible during cell division; the term circular DNA is now commonly used for the circular strand of DNA present in a prokaryotic cell

11. Cytoplasm - 细胞质
    The contents of a cell, excluding the nucleus

12. Grana - 基粒
    (singular granum) stacks of membranes inside a chloroplast

13. Mitochondrion - 线粒体
    (plural mitochondria) the organelle in eukaryotes in which aerobic respiration takes place

14. Nucleolus - 核仁
    A small structure, one or more of which is found inside the nucleus; the nucleolus is usually visible as a densely stained body; its function is to manufacture ribosomes using the information in its own DNA

15. Photosynthesis - 光合作用
    The production of organic substances from inorganic ones, using energy from light

16. Plasmodesma - 胞间连丝
    (plural plasmodesmata) a pore-like structure found in plant cell walls; plasmodesmata of neighbouring plant cells lineup to form tube-like pores through the cell walls, allowing the controlled passage of materials from one cell to the other; the pores contain ER and are lined with the cell surface membrane

17. Protoplasm - 原生质
    All the living material inside a cell (cytoplasm plus nucleus)

18. Tonoplast - 液泡膜
    The partially permeable membrane that surrounds plant vacuoles

19. Vacuole - 液泡
    An organelle found in eukaryotic cells; alarge, permanent central vacuole is atypical feature of plant cells, where it has a variety of functions, including storage of biochemicals such as salts, sugars and waste products; temporary vacuoles, such as phagocytic vacuoles (also known as phagocytic vesicles),may form in animal cells; see endocytosis

20. Eyepiece graticule - 目镜刻尺
    Small scale that is placed in a microscope eyepiece

Section 2 - [21~]#

21. Magnification - 放大倍数
    The number of times larger animage of an object is than the real size of the object; magnification = image size ÷ actual (real) size of the object

22. Micrograph - 显微照片
    A picture taken with the aid of a microscope; a photomicrograph (or light micrograph) is taken using alight microscope; an electron micrograph is taken using an electron microscope

23. Stage micrometer - 台尺
    Very small, accurately drawn scale of known dimensions, engraved on a microscope slide

24. Resolution - 分辨率
    The ability to distinguish between two objects very close together; the higher the resolution of an image, the greater the detail that can be seen

25. ADP (adenosine diphosphate) - 二磷酸腺苷 (ADP)
    The molecule that is converted to ATP by addition of phosphate (a reaction known as phosphorylation) during cell respiration; the enzyme responsible is ATP synthase; the reaction requires energy

26. ATP (adenosine triphosphate) - 三磷酸腺苷 (ATP)
    The molecule that is the universal energy currency in all living cells; the purpose of respiration is to make ATP

27. Centriole - 中心粒
    One of two small, cylindrical structures, made from microtubules, found just outside the nucleus in animal cells, in a region known as the centrosome; they are also found at the bases of cilia and flagella

28. Centrosome - 中心体
    The main microtubule organising centre (MTOC) in animal cells

29. Cilia - 纤毛
    (singular cilium) whip-like structures projecting from the surface of many animal cells and the cells of many unicellular organisms; they beat, causing locomotion or the movement of fluid across the cell surface

30. Cristae - 嵴
    (singular crista) folds of the inner membrane of the mitochondrial envelope on which are found stalked particles of ATP synthase and electron transport chains associated with aerobic respiration

31. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) - 内质网 (ER)
    A network of flattened sacs running through the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells; molecules, particularly proteins, can be transported through the cell inside the sacs separate from the rest of the cytoplasm; ER is continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope

32. Flagella - 鞭毛
    (singular flagellum) whip-like structures projecting from the surface of some animal cells and the cells of many unicellular organisms; they beat, causing locomotion or the movement of fluid across the cell surface; they are identical in structure to cilia, but longer

33. Golgi body (Golgi apparatus, Golgi complex) - 高尔基体 (高尔基器，高尔基复合体)
    An organelle found in eukaryotic cells; the Golgi apparatus consists of a stack of flattened sacs, constantly forming at one end and breaking up into Golgi vesicles at the other end

34. Golgi vesicles - 高尔基小泡
    Carry their contents to other parts of the cell, often to the cell surface membrane for secretion; the Golgi apparatus chemically modifies the molecules it transports, e.g. sugars maybe added to proteins to make glycoproteins

35. Lysosome - 溶酶体
    A spherical organelle found in eukaryotic cells; it contains digestive (hydrolytic) enzymes and has a variety of destructive functions, such as removal of old cell organelles

36. Microtubules - 微管
    Tiny tubes made of a protein called tubulin and found in most eukaryotic cells; microtubules have a large variety of functions, including cell support and determining cell shape; the ‘spindle’ on which chromosomes separate during nuclear division is made of microtubules

37. Microvilli - 微绒毛
    (singular microvillus) small, finger-like extensions of a cell which increase the surface area of the cell for more efficient absorption or secretion

38. Nuclear envelope - 核膜
    The two membranes, situated close together, that surround the nucleus; the envelope is perforated with nuclear pores

39. Nuclear pores - 核孔
    Pores found in the nuclear envelope which control the exchange of materials, e.g. mRNA, between the nucleus and the cytoplasm

40. Ribosome - 核糖体
    A tiny organelle found in large numbers in all cells; prokaryotic ribosomes are smaller (20 nm diameter) than eukaryotic ribosomes (25 nm diameter)

Section 3 - [41~]#

41. Thylakoid - 类囊体
    A flattened, membrane-bound, fluid-filled sac which is the site of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis in a chloroplast

42. Bacteria - 细菌
    (singular bacterium) a group of single-celled prokaryotic microorganisms; they have a number of characteristics, such as the ability to form spores, which distinguish them from the other group of prokaryotes known as Archaea

43. Peptidoglycan - 肽聚糖
    A polysaccharide combined with amino acids; it is also known as murein; it makes the bacterial cell wall more rigid

44. Plasmid - 质粒
    A small circular piece of DNA in a bacterium (not its main ‘chromosome’); plasmids often contain genes that confer resistance to antibiotics

45. Murein - 粘肽
    See peptidoglycan

46. Phospholipid - 磷脂
    A lipid to which phosphate is added; the molecule is made up of a glycerol molecule, two fatty acids and a phosphate group; a double layer (a bilayer) of phospholipids forms the basic structure of all cell membranes

47. Virus - 病毒
    Avery small (20–300 nm) infectious particle which can replicate only inside living cells; it consists of a molecule of DNA or RNA (the genome) surrounded by a protein coat; an outer lipid envelope may also be present

48. Condensation reaction - 缩合反应
    A chemical reaction involving the joining together of two molecules by removal of a water molecule

49. Hydrolysis - 水解
    A chemical reaction in which a chemical bond is broken by the addition of a water molecule; commonly used to breakdown complex molecules into simpler molecules

50. Macromolecule - 大分子
    See also polymer; a large molecule such as a polysaccharide, protein or nucleic acid

51. Monomer - 单体
    A relatively simple molecule which is used as a basic building block for the synthesis of a polymer; many monomers are joined together to make the polymer, usually by condensation reactions; common examples of monomers are monosaccharides, amino acids and nucleotides

52. Monosaccharide - 单糖
    A molecule consisting of a single sugar unit and with the general formula (CH2O)n

53. Polymer - 聚合物
    A giant molecule made from many similar repeating subunits joined together in a chain; the subunits are much smaller and simpler molecules known as monomers; examples of biological polymers are polysaccharides, proteins and nucleic acids

54. Benedict’s test - 本尼迪克特试验
    A test for the presence of reducing sugars; the unknown substance is heated with Benedict’s reagent, and a change from a clear blue solution to the production of a yellow, red or brown precipitate indicates the presence of reducing sugars such as glucose

55. Cellulose - 纤维素
    A polysaccharide made from beta-glucose subunits; used as astrengthening material in plant cell walls

56. Disaccharide - 双糖
    A sugar molecule consisting of two monosaccharides joined together by a glycosidic bond

57. Glycogen - 糖原
    A polysaccharide made of many glucose molecules linked together, that acts as a glucose store in liver and muscle cells

58. Glycosidic bond - 糖苷键
    A C–O–C link between two sugar molecules, formed by a condensation reaction; it is a covalent bond

59. Hydrogen bond - 氢键
    A relatively weak bond formed by the attraction between a group with a small positive charge on a hydrogen atom (H∂+) and another group carrying a small negative charge (∂–),e.g. between two –Oδ–Hδ+ groups

60. Polysaccharide - 多糖
    A polymer whose subunits are monosaccharides joined together by glycosidic bonds

Section 4 - [61~]#

61. Ester bond / ester linkage - 酯键 / 酯键连接
    A chemical bond, represented as –COO– , formed when an acid reacts with an alcohol

62. Triglyceride - 三酰甘油
    A type of lipid formed when three fatty acid molecules combine with glycerol, an alcohol with three hydroxyl (−OH) groups

63. Biuret test - 双缩脲试验
    A test for the presence of amine groups and thus for the presence of protein; biuret reagent is added to the unknown substance, and a change from pale blue to purple indicates the presence of protein

64. Collagen - 胶原蛋白
    The main structural protein of animals; known as ‘white fibres’, the fundamental unit of the fibre consists of three helical polypeptide chains wound around each other, forming a ‘triple helix’ with high tensile strength

65. Fibrous protein - 纤维蛋白
    A protein whose molecules have a relatively long, thin structure that is generally insoluble and metabolically inactive, and whose function is usually structural,e.g. keratin and collagen

66. Globular protein - 球状蛋白
    A protein whose molecules are folded into a relatively spherical shape, often has physiological roles and is often water-soluble and metabolically active, e.g. insulin, haemoglobin and enzymes

67. Haemoglobin - 血红蛋白
    The red pigment found in red blood cells, whose molecules contain four iron atoms within a globular protein made up of four polypeptides; it combines reversibly with oxygen

68. Peptide bond - 肽键
    A C–N link between two amino acid molecules, formed by a condensation reaction; the covalent bond joining neighbouring amino acids together in proteins

69. Polypeptide - 多肽
    Along chain of amino acids formed by condensation reactions between the individual amino acids; proteins are made of one or more polypeptide chains; see peptide bond

70. Primary structure - 一级结构
    The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide or protein

71. Quaternary structure - 四级结构
    The three-dimensional arrangement of two or more polypeptides, or of a polypeptide and anon-protein component such ashaem, in a protein molecule

72. Secondary structure - 二级结构
    The structure of a protein molecule resulting from the regular coiling or folding of the chain of amino acids (an α-helix or β-pleated sheet)

73. Sickle cell anaemia - 镰状细胞贫血
    A genetic disease caused by a faulty gene coding for haemoglobin, in which haemoglobin tends to precipitate when oxygen concentrations are low

74. Tertiary structure - 三级结构
    The compact structure of a protein molecule resulting from the three-dimensional coiling of the already-folded chain of amino acids

75. Α-helix - α-螺旋
    A helical structure formed by a polypeptide chain,held in place by hydrogen bonds; an α-helix is an example of secondary structure in a protein

76. Β-pleated sheet - β-折叠
    A loose, sheet-like structure formed by hydrogen bonding between parallel polypeptide chains; a β-pleated sheet is an example of secondary structure in a protein

Section 5 - [77~]#

77. Enzyme - 酶
    A protein produced by a living organism that acts as a catalyst in a specific reaction by reducing activation energy

78. Activation energy - 活化能
    The energy that must be provided to make a reaction take place; enzymes reduce the activation energy required for a substrate to change into a product

79. Active site - 活性部位
    An area on an enzyme molecule where the substrate can bind

80. Induced-fit hypothesis - 诱导契合假说
    A hypothesis for enzyme action; the substrate is a complementary shape to the active site of the enzyme, but not an exact fit – the enzyme or sometimes the substrate can change shape slightly to ensure a perfect fit, but it is still described as showing specificity

81. Lock-and-key hypothesis - 锁钥假说
    A hypothesis for enzyme action; the substrate is a complementary shape to the active site of the enzyme, and fits exactly into the site; the enzyme shows specificity for the substrate

82. Colorimeter - 比色计
    An instrument that measures the colour of a solution by measuring the absorption of different wavelengths of light

83. Vmax - 最大速度 (Vmax)
    The theoretical maximum rate of an enzyme-controlled reaction, obtained when all the active sites of the enzyme are occupied

84. Michaelis–Menten constant (Km) - 米氏常数 (Km)
    The substrate concentration at which an enzyme works at half its maximum rate (½Vmax), used as a measure of the efficiency of an enzyme; the lower the value of Km, the more efficient the enzyme

85. Km - 米氏常数 (Km)
    See Michaelis–Menten constant

86. Competitive inhibition - 竞争性抑制
    When a substance reduces the rate of activity of an enzyme by competing with the substrate molecules for the enzyme’s active site; increasing substrate concentration reduces the degree of inhibition; increasing inhibitor concentration increases the degree of inhibition

87. Non-competitive inhibition - 非竞争性抑制
    When a substance reduces the rate of activity of an enzyme, but increasing the concentration of the substrate does not reduce the degree of inhibition; many non-competitive inhibitors bind to areas of the enzyme molecule other than the active site itself

88. Immobilised enzymes - 固定化酶
    Enzymes that have been fixed to a surface or trapped inside beads of agar gel

Section 6 - [89~]#

89. Fluid mosaic model - 流动镶嵌模型
    The currently accepted model of membrane structure, proposed by Singer and Nicolson in 1972, in which protein molecules are free to move about in a fluid bilayer of phospholipid molecules

90. Cholesterol - 胆固醇
    A small,lipid-related molecule with a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail which is an essential constituent of membranes; it is particularly common in animal cells and gives flexibility and stability to the membrane as well as reducing fluidity

91. Cell signalling - 细胞信号传导
    The molecular mechanisms by which cells detect and respond to external stimuli, including communication between cells

92. Ligand - 配体
    A biological molecule which binds specifically to another molecule, such as a cell surface membrane receptor, during cell signalling

93. Transduction - 转导
    Occurs during cell signalling and is the process of converting a signal from one method of transmission to another

94. Active transport - 主动运输
    The movement of molecules orions through transport proteins across a cell membrane, against their concentration gradient, using energy from ATP

95. Carrier protein - 载体蛋白
    A membrane protein which changes shape to allow the passage into or out of the cell of specific ions or molecules by facilitated diffusion or active transport

96. Channel protein - 通道蛋白
    A membrane protein of fixed shape which has a water-filled pore through which selected hydrophilic ions or molecules can pass; see facilitated diffusion

97. Diffusion - 扩散
    The net movement of molecules orions from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration down a concentration gradient, as a result of the random movements of particles

98. Endocytosis - 内吞作用
    The bulk movement of liquids (pinocytosis) or solids (phagocytosis) into a cell, by the infolding of the cell surface membrane to form vesicles containing the substance; endocytosis is an active process requiring ATP

99. Exocytosis - 外排作用
    The bulk movement of liquids or solids out of a cell, by the fusion of vesicles containing the substance with the cell surface membrane; exocytosis is an active process requiring ATP

100. Facilitated diffusion - 协助扩散
     The diffusion of a substance through atransport protein (channel protein or carrier protein) in a cell membrane; the protein provides hydrophilic areas that allow the molecule orion to pass through the membrane, which would otherwise be less permeable to it

101. Incipient plasmolysis - 初现质壁分离
     The point at which plasmolysis is about to occur when a plant cell or a prokaryote cell is losing water; at this point the protoplast is exerting no pressure on the cell wall

102. Osmosis - 渗透作用
     The net diffusion of water molecules from a region of higher water potential to a region of lower water potential, through a partially permeable membrane

103. Phagocyte - 吞噬细胞
     A type of cell that ingests (eats) and destroys pathogens or damaged body cells by the process of phagocytosis; some phagocytes are white blood cells.

104. Plasmolysis - 质壁分离
     The loss of water from a plant or prokaryote cell to the point where the protoplast shrinks away from the cell wall

105. Protoplast - 原生质体
     The living contents of a plant cell, including the cell surface membrane but excluding the cell wall

106. Sodium–potassium pump (Na+–K+ pump) - 钠钾泵 (Na+–K+ 泵)
     A membrane protein (or proteins) that moves sodium ions out of a cell and potassium ions into it, using ATP

107. Water potential - 水势
     A measure of the tendency of water to move from one place to another; water moves from a solution with higher water potential to one with lower water potential; water potential is decreased by the addition of solute, and increased by the application of pressure; symbol for water potential is Ψ or Ψw

108. Phagocytosis - 吞噬作用
     See endocytosis

109. Pinocytosis - 胞饮作用
     See endocytosis

Section 7 - [110~]#

110. Chromatid - 染色单体
     One of two identical parts of a chromosome, held together by a centromere, formed during interphase by the replication of the DNA strand

111. Cell cycle - 细胞周期
     The sequence of events that takes place from one cell division until the next; it is made up of interphase, mitosis and cytokinesis

112. Mitosis - 有丝分裂
     The division of a nucleus into two so that the two daughter cells have exactly the same number and type of chromosomes as the parent cell

113. Asexual reproduction - 无性繁殖
     The production of new individuals of a species by a single parent organism

114. Kinetochore - 着丝粒
     A protein structure found at the centromere of a chromatid to which microtubules attach during nuclear division

115. Stem cell - 干细胞
     A relatively unspecialised cell that retains the ability to divide an unlimited number of times, and which has the potential to become a specialised cell (such as a blood cell or muscle cell)

116. Telomere - 端粒
     Repetitive sequence of DNA at the end of a chromosome that protects genes from the chromosome shortening that happens at each cell division

117. Cancers - 癌症
     A group of diseases that result from a breakdown in the usual control mechanisms that regulate cell division; certain cells divide uncontrollably and form tumours, from which cells may breakaway and form secondary tumours in other areas of the body (metastasis)

118. Carcinogen - 致癌物
     A substance or environmental factor that can cause cancer

119. Mutation - 突变
     A random change in the base sequence (structure) of DNA (a gene mutation), or in the structure and/or number of chromosomes (achromosome mutation)

Section 8 - [120~]#

120. Complementary base pairing - 互补碱基配对
     The hydrogen bonding of A with T or U and of C with G in nucleic acids

121. Dinucleotide - 二核苷酸
     Two nucleotides joined together by a phosphodiester bond

122. Nucleotide - 核苷酸
     A molecule consisting of a nitrogen-containing base, a pentose sugar and a phosphate group

123. Phosphodiester bond - 磷酸二酯键
     A bond joining two nucleotides together; there are two ester bonds, one from the shared phosphate group to each of the sugars either side of it

124. Polynucleotide - 多核苷酸
     A chain of nucleotides joined together by phosphodiester bonds

125. DNA ligase - DNA连接酶
     An enzyme that catalyses the joining together of two nucleotides with covalent phosphodiester bonds during DNA replication; used when inserting DNA into a plasmid

126. DNA polymerase - DNA聚合酶
     An enzyme that copies DNA; it runs along the separated DNA strands lining up one complementary nucleotide at a time ready for joining by DNA ligase

127. Gene - 基因
     A length of DNA that codes for a particular protein or polypeptide

128. Lagging strand - 后随链
     During DNA replication, the parent strand that runs in the 5′ to 3′ direction is copied to produce the lagging strand

129. Leading strand - 领先链
     During DNA replication, the parent strand that runs in the 3′ to 5′ direction is copied to produce the leading strand

130. Semi-conservative replication - 半保留复制
     The method by which a DNA molecule is copied to form two identical molecules, each containing one strand from the original molecule and one newly synthesised strand

131. Transcription - 转录
     Copying the genetic information in a molecule of DNA into a complementary strand of mRNA; a single strand of the DNA is used as a template (this is called the template or transcribed strand) – the enzyme responsible is RNA polymerase

132. Translation - 翻译
     A stage in protein synthesis during which a sequence of nucleotides in a molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA) is converted (translated) into a corresponding sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain; it takes place at ribosomes

133. Anticodon - 反密码子
     Sequence of three unpaired bases on a tRNA molecule that binds with a codon on mRNA

134. Chromosome mutation - 染色体突变
     A random and unpredictable change in the structure or number of chromosomes in a cell

135. Codon - 密码子
     Sequence of three bases on an mRNA molecule that codes for a specific amino acid or for a stop signal

136. Gene mutation - 基因突变
     A change in the base sequence in part of a DNA molecule

137. Frame-shift mutation - 移码突变
     A type of gene mutation causedby insertion or deletion of one or more nucleotides, resulting in incorrect reading of the sequence of triplets in the genetic code due to a shift in the reading frame

Section 9 - [138~]#

138. Vascular - 维管
     A term referring to tubes or vessels (from the Latin ‘vascul’,meaning vessel)

139. Vascular system - 维管系统
     A system of fluid-filled tubes, vessels or spaces, most commonly used for long-distance transport in living organisms; examples are the blood vascular system in animals and the vascular system of xylem and phloem in plants

140. Collenchyma - 厚角组织
     A modified form of parenchymain which the corners of the cells have extra cellulose thickening, providing extra support, as in the midrib of leaves and at the corners of square stems; in three dimensions the tissue occurs in strands (as in celery petioles)

141. Dicotyledon - 双子叶植物
     Flowering plants can be classified as monocotyledons or dicotyledons; the seeds of dicotyledonous plants contain an embryo with two cotyledons (seed leaves) in their seeds and the adult plant typically has leaves with a blade (lamina) and astalk (petiole)

142. Endodermis - 内皮层
     The layer of cells surrounding the vascular tissue of plants; it is most clearly visible in roots

143. Epidermis - 表皮
     The outer layer of cells covering the body of a plant or animal; in plants it is usually one cell thick and maybe covered with a cuticle which provides additional protection against loss of water and disease

144. Lignin - 木质素
     A hard material made by plants and used to strengthen the cell walls of certain types of cell, particularly xylem vessel elements and sclerenchyma cells; it is the main material in wood

145. Parenchyma - 薄壁组织
     A basic plant tissue typically used as packing tissue between more specialised structures; it is metabolically active and may have a variety of functions such as food storage and support; parenchyma cells also play an important role in the movement of water and food products in the xylem and phloem

146. Phloem - 韧皮部
     A tissue containing tubes called sieve tubes and other types of cell, responsible for the transport through the plant of organic solutes (assimilates) such as sucrose

147. Sclerenchyma - 厚壁组织
     A plant tissue consisting of thick-walled cells with a purely mechanical function (strength and support); the cell walls have usually become impregnated with lignin and the mature cells are dead with no visible contents; many sclerenchyma cells take the form of fibres

148. Stage micrometer - 台尺
     Very small, accurately drawn scale of known dimensions, engraved on a microscope slide

149. Vascular bundle - 维管束
     A strand of vascular tissue running longitudinally in a plant; within the bundle, the arrangement of tissues like xylem, phloem and sclerenchyma varies in different plants and organs

150. Vascular tissue - 维管组织
     A tissue in plants consisting mainly of xylem and phloem but also containing sclerenchyma and parenchyma cells

151. Xylem - 木质部
     A tissue containing tubes called vessels and other types of cell, responsible for the transport of water through a plant and for support

152. Eyepiece graticule - 目镜刻尺
     Small scale that is placed in a microscope eyepiece

153. Apoplast pathway - 质外体途径
     The non-living system of interconnected cell walls extending throughout a plant, used as a transport pathway for the movement of water and mineral ions

154. Cuticle - 角质层
     A layer covering, and secreted by, the epidermis; in plants it is made of a fatty substance called cutin, which helps to provide protection against water loss and infection

155. Mesophyll - 叶肉
     The region of a leaf between the upper and lower epidermis; in dicotyledonous plants the mesophyll has an upper palisade layer and a lower mesophyll layer; the palisade mesophyll cells are column-shaped and form the main photosynthetic layer, whereas the spongy mesophyll has large air spaces between the cells for gas exchange

156. Stoma - 气孔
     (plural stomata) a pore in the epidermis of a leaf, bounded by two guard cells and needed for efficient gas exchange

157. Symplast pathway - 共质体途径
     The living system of interconnected protoplasts extending throughout a plant, used as a transport pathway for the movement of water and solutes; individual protoplasts are connected via plasmodesmata

Section 10 - [158~]#

158. Transpiration - 蒸腾作用
     The loss of water vapour from a plant to its environment; it mostly takes place through the stomata in the leaves

159. Xerophyte - 旱生植物
     A plant adapted to survive in conditions where water is in short supply

160. Xylem vessel - 木质部导管
     A dead, empty tube with lignified walls, through which water is transported in plants; it is formed by xylem vessel elements lined upend to end

161. Xylem vessel element - 木质部导管元
     A dead,lignified cell found in xylem specialised for transporting water and support; the ends of the cells breakdown and join with neighbouring elements to form long tubes called xylem vessels

162. Companion cell - 伴胞
     A cell with anunthickened cellulose wall and dense cytoplasm that is found in close association with a phloem sieve element to which it is directly linked via many plasmodesmata; the companion cell and the sieve element form a functional unit

163. Sieve element or sieve tube element - 筛元或筛管元
     A cell found in phloem tissue, with non-thickened cellulose walls, very little cytoplasm, no nucleus and end walls perforated to form sieve plates, through which sap containing sucrose is transported

164. Sieve tube - 筛管
     Tube formed by sieve elements lined upend to end

165. Sink - 库
     A site in aplant which receives food from another part of the plant, the source

166. Source - 源
     A site in aplant which provides food for another part of the plant, the sink

167. Circulatory system - 循环系统
     A system that carries fluids around an organism’s body

168. Closed blood system - 闭合血液系统
     A circulatory system made up of vessels containing blood

169. Double circulation - 双循环
     A circulatory system in which the blood passes through the heart twice on one complete circuit of the body

170. Pulmonary circulation - 肺循环
     The part of the circulatory system that carries blood from the heart to the gas exchange surface and then back to the heart

171. Systemic circulation - 体循环
     The part of the circulatory system that carries blood from the heart to all of the body except the gas exchange surface, and then back to the heart

172. Arteriole - 小动脉
     Small artery

173. Artery - 动脉
     Vessel with thick, strong walls that carries high-pressure blood away from the heart

174. Capillary - 毛细血管
     The smallest bloodvessel, whose role is to deliver oxygen and nutrients to body tissues, and to remove their waste products

175. Elastic arteries - 弹性动脉
     Relatively large arteries, which have a lot of elastic tissue and little muscle tissue in their walls

176. Endothelium - 内皮
     A tissue that lines the inner surface of bloodvessels

177. Muscular arteries - 肌肉动脉
     Arteries that are closer to the final destination of the blood inside them than elastic arteries, with more smooth muscle in their walls which allows them to constrict and dilate

Section 11 - [178~]#

178. Semilunar valve - 半月瓣
     A half-moon shaped valve, such as the ones in the veins and between the ventricles and arteries

179. Smooth muscle - 平滑肌
     A type of muscle that can contract steadily overlong periods of time

180. Squamous epithelium - 鳞状上皮
     One or more layers of thin, flat cells forming the linings of bloodvessels and alveoli

181. Vasoconstriction - 血管收缩
     The narrowing of a muscular artery or arteriole, caused by the contraction of the smooth muscle in its walls

182. Vasodilation - 血管舒张
     The widening of a muscular artery or arteriole, caused by the relaxation of the smooth muscle in its walls

183. Vein - 静脉
     Vessel with relatively thin walls that carries low- pressure blood back to the heart

184. Venule - 微静脉
     Small vein

185. Plasma - 血浆
     The liquid component of blood, in which the blood cells float; it carries a very large range of different substances in solution

186. Plasma proteins - 血浆蛋白
     A range of several different proteins dissolved in the blood plasma, each with their own function; many of them are made in the liver

187. Tissue fluid - 组织液
     The almost colourless fluid that fills the spaces between body cells; it forms from the fluid that leaks from blood capillaries

188. Bohr shift - 波尔效应
     The decrease in affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen that occurs when carbon dioxide is present

189. Carbaminohaemoglobin - 氨基甲酰血红蛋白
     A compound formed when carbon dioxide binds with haemoglobin

190. Carbonic anhydrase - 碳酸酐酶
     An enzyme found in the cytoplasm of red blood cells that catalyses the reaction between carbon dioxide and water to form carbonic acid

191. Chloride shift - 氯离子转移
     The movement of chloride ions into red blood cells from blood plasma, to balance the movement of hydrogencarbonate ions into the plasma from the red blood cells

192. Dissociation curve - 解离曲线
     A graph showing the percentage saturation of a pigment (such as haemoglobin) with oxygen, plotted against the partial pressure of oxygen

193. Lymphocyte - 淋巴细胞
     A white blood cell with a nucleus that almost fills the cell, which responds to antigens and helps to destroy the antigens or the structure that is carrying them

194. Macrophage - 巨噬细胞
     Phagocytic cell found in tissues throughout the body; they act as antigen-presenting cells (APCs)

195. Monocyte - 单核细胞
     The largest type of white blood cell; it has a bean-shaped nucleus; monocytes can leave the blood and develop into a type of phagocytic cell called a macrophage

196. Neutrophil - 中性粒细胞
     One type of phagocytic white blood cell; it has a lobed nucleus and granular cytoplasm

197. Partial pressure - 分压
     A measure of the concentration of a gas

Section 12 - [198~]#

198. Percentage saturation - 百分饱和度
     The degree to which the haemoglobin in the blood is combined with oxygen, calculated as a percentage of the maximum amount with which it can combine

199. Atrial systole - 心房收缩期
     The stage of the cardiac cycle when the muscle in the walls of the atria contracts

200. Atrioventricular node - 房室结
     A patch of tissue in the septum of the heart which transmits the wave of excitation from the walls of the atria and transmits it to the Purkyne tissue

201. Atrioventricular valve - 房室瓣
     A valve between the atria and ventricles that closes when the ventricles contract and stops backflow of blood into the atria

202. Atrium - 心房
     (plural atria) one of the chambers of the heart that receives low-pressure blood from the veins

203. Bicuspid valve - 二尖瓣
     The atrioventricular valve on the left side of the heart

204. Cardiac cycle - 心动周期
     The sequence of events taking place during one heartbeat

205. Cardiac muscle - 心肌
     The type of muscle that makes up the walls of the heart

206. Coronary arteries - 冠状动脉
     Arteries that branch from the aorta and spread over the walls of the heart, supplying the cardiac muscle with nutrients and oxygen

207. Diastole - 舒张期
     The stage of the cardiac cycle when the muscle in the walls of the heart relaxes

208. Myogenic - 自律性
     A word used to describe muscle tissue that contracts and relaxes even when there is no stimulation from a nerve

209. Purkyne tissue - 浦肯野纤维
     A bundle of fibres that conduct the wave of excitation down through the septum of the heart to the base (apex) of the ventricles

210. Septum - 隔膜
     The layer of tissue that separates the left and right sides of the heart

211. Sinoatrial node (SAN) - 窦房结 (SAN)
     A patch of cardiac muscle in the right atrium of the heart which contracts and relaxes in a rhythm that sets the pattern for the rest of the heart muscle

212. Tricuspid valve - 三尖瓣
     The atrioventricular valve on the right side of the heart

213. Ventricle - 心室
     One of the chambers of the heart that receives blood from the atria and then pushes it into the arteries

214. Ventricular systole - 心室收缩期
     The stage of the cardiac cycle when the muscle in the walls of the ventricles contracts

Section 13 - [215~]#

215. Alveolus - 肺泡
     (plural alveoli) a small air sac in the lungs composed of a single layer of squamous epithelium and some elastic fibres; each alveolus is surrounded by capillaries that transport blood from the pulmonary artery to the pulmonary vein

216. Gas exchange surface - 气体交换表面
     Any part of an organism that allows the movement of gases between the surroundings and the body; gas exchange occurs across the body surface of some organisms that have large surface area volume ratios; organisms with small ratios have specialised gas exchange surfaces, such as the lungs of mammals and the gills of fish

217. Bronchiole - 细支气管
     A microscopic branch of a bronchus that leads to the alveoli

218. **Bronchus ** - 支气管
     (plural bronchi) a major branch of the trachea that extends into the lungs

219. Cartilage - 软骨
     A type of skeletal tissue that is strong and flexible and supports the larynx, trachea and bronchi in the gas exchange system; cartilage is also found at joints between bones and in the external ear

220. Trachea (windpipe) - 气管
     The tube-like structure that extends from the larynx to the bronchi; it allows movement of air into and out of the lungs

221. Ciliated epithelium - 纤毛上皮
     An epithelium that consists mainly of ciliated cells; may also contain goblet cells

222. Goblet cell - 杯状细胞
     A cell shaped like a drinking goblet that secretes mucus; goblet cells are found in epithelia lining parts of the gas exchange system and other organ systems, e.g. reproductive and digestive

223. Mucin - 粘蛋白
     Any glycoprotein that forms part of the mucus secreted by goblet cells and mucous cells

224. Epithelium - 上皮
     A tissue that forms the lining of the respiratory passages and the alimentary canal

225. Elastic fibres - 弹性纤维
     Bundles of the fibrous protein elastin which can stretch and recoil like elastic bands; they can stretch up to twice their length before breaking

Section 14 - [226~]#

226. AIDS - 艾滋病
     Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

227. Disease carrier (or simply carrier) - 疾病携带者 (或简单称为携带者)
     Person infected with a pathogen who shows no symptoms, but can be the source of infection in other people (not carrier of an inherited disease)

228. Disease eradication - 疾病根除
     The complete breakage of the transmission cycle of a pathogen so that there are no more cases of the disease caused by the pathogen anywhere in the world

229. Disease transmission - 疾病传播
     The transfer of a pathogen from a person infected with that pathogen to anuninfected person; transmission may occur by direct contact, through the air or water or by animal vectors, such as insects

230. Disease vector - 疾病媒介
     An organism which carries a pathogen from one person to another or from an animal to a human

231. Endemic disease - 地方性疾病
     A disease that is always in a population

232. HIV - 艾滋病毒 (HIV)
     Human immunodeficiency virus

233. Infectious disease - 传染病
     A disease caused by an organism such as a protoctist, bacterium or virus

234. Opportunistic infection - 机会性感染
     An infection caused by pathogens that take advantage of a host with a weakened immune system, as may happen in someone with an HIV infection

235. Pathogen - 病原体
     An organism that causes disease

236. Transmission cycle - 传播周期
     The passage of a pathogen from one host to another is continually repeated as the pathogen infects new hosts

237. Antibiotic - 抗生素
     A substance derived from a living organism that is capable of killing or inhibiting the growth of a microorganism

238. Antibiotic resistance - 抗生素耐药性
     The ability of bacteria or fungi to grow in the presence of an antibiotic that would normally slow their growth or kill them; antibiotic resistance arises by mutation and becomes widespread when antibiotics are overused

239. Endemic species - 地方性物种
     A species that is only found in a certain area and nowhere else

Section 15 - [240~]#

240. Antibody - 抗体
     A glycoprotein (immunoglobulin) made by specialised lymphocytes in response to the presence of a specific antigen; each type of antibody molecule has a shape that is complementary to its specific antigen

241. Antigen - 抗原
     A substance that is foreign to the body and stimulates an immune response (e.g. any large molecule such as a protein)

242. Immune response - 免疫反应
     The complex series of responses of the body to the entry of a foreign antigen; it involves the activity of lymphocytes and phagocytes

243. Immune system - 免疫系统
     The body’s internal defence system

244. Non-self - 非自身
     Refers to any substance or cell that is recognised by the immune system as being foreign and will stimulate an immune response

245. Self - 自身
     Refers to substances produced by the body that the immune system does not recognise as foreign, so they do not stimulate an immune response

246. Antigen presentation - 抗原呈递
     The process of preparing antigens and exposing them on the surface of host cells (e.g. macrophages) for recognition by T-lymphocytes

247. Clonal expansion - 克隆扩展
     The increase in number of specific clones of lymphocytes by mitosis during an immune response

248. Clonal selection - 克隆选择
     Individual lymphocytes have cell surface receptors specific to one antigen; this specificity is determined as lymphocytes mature and before any antigens enter the body (during an immune response the only lymphocytes to respond are those with receptors specific to antigens on the surface of the invading pathogen)

249. Cytokine - 细胞因子
     Any signalling molecule released by cells to influence the growth and/or differentiation of the same or another cell

250. Immunological memory - 免疫记忆
     The ability of the immune system to mount a larger and more rapid response to an antigen that has already been encountered before

251. Memory B cell - 记忆B细胞
     Long-lived, activated B-lymphocyte that is specific to one antigen; memory cells are activated to differentiate (develop) into plasma cells during secondary immune responses to the specific antigen

252. Plasma cell - 浆细胞
     Short-lived, activated B-lymphocyte produced during clonal expansion; plasma cells produce and release antibody molecules

253. Primary immune response - 初级免疫反应
     The first immune response to a specific antigen

254. Secondary immune response - 次级免疫反应
     The second and any subsequent immune responses to a specific antigen

255. T-helper cell - 辅助T细胞
     Type of T-lymphocyte that secretes cytokines to coordinate activity during immune responses

256. T-killer cell - 杀伤T细胞
     Type of T-lymphocyte that attaches to cells, releasing toxic substances to kill infected cells and cancer cells

257. Variable region - 可变区
     Region of an antibody molecule composed of parts of the light and heavy polypeptide chains that form the antigen-binding site; the amino acid sequences of the variable site form a specific shape that is complementary to a particular antigen

258. B-lymphocyte (B cell) - B淋巴细胞 (B细胞)
     A type of lymphocyte that gives rise to plasma cells and secretes antibodies

259. T-lymphocyte (T cell) - T淋巴细胞 (T细胞)
     A lymphocyte that does not secrete antibodies; T helper lymphocytes stimulate the immune system to respond during an infection, and killer T lymphocytes destroy human cells that are infected with pathogens such as bacteria and viruses

Section 16 - [260~]#

260. Active immunity - 主动免疫
     Immunity gained when an antigen enters the body, an immune response occurs and antibodies are produced by plasma cells

261. Artificial active immunity - 人工主动免疫
     Immunity gained by putting antigens into the body, either by injection or by mouth

262. Artificial passive immunity - 人工被动免疫
     The immunity gained by injecting antibodies

263. Herd immunity - 群体免疫
     Vaccinating a large proportion of the population; provides protection for those not immunised as transmission of a pathogen is reduced

264. Hybridoma - 杂交瘤
     A cell formed by the fusion of a plasma cell and a cancer cell; it can both secrete antibodies and divide to form other cells like itself

265. Monoclonal antibody - 单克隆抗体
     An antibody made by a single clone of hybridoma cells; all the antibody molecules made by the clone have identical variable regions so are specific to one antigen

266. Natural active immunity - 自然主动免疫
     Immunity gained by being infected by a pathogen

267. Natural passive immunity - 自然被动免疫
     The immunity gained by a fetus when maternal antibodies cross the placenta or the immunity gained by an infant from breast milk

268. Passive immunity - 被动免疫
     The temporary immunity gained without there being an immune response

269. Ring immunity - 环形免疫
     Vaccinating all those people in contact with a person infected with a specific disease to prevent transmission in the immediate area

270. Vaccination - 疫苗接种
     Giving a vaccine containing antigens for a disease, either by injection or by mouth; vaccination confers artificial active immunity without the development of symptoms of the disease

271. Vaccine - 疫苗
     A preparation containing antigens to stimulate active immunity against one or several diseases

Section 17 - [272~]#

272. Accuracy - 准确性
     How close a reading is to the ‘true’ value

273. Buffer solution - 缓冲溶液
     A solution that has a known pH, which can be added to a reacting mixture to maintain the pH at that level

274. Control - 对照
     A standard of comparison in an experiment; it is used to compare the results of changing the independent variable with a sample in which the independent variable is not present, or is unchanged

275. Dependent variable - 因变量
     The variable (factor) that is affected by changes in the independent variable; this is the variable that you record as a measurement

276. Independent variable - 自变量
     The variable (factor) that you purposefully change in an experiment

277. Interval - 区间
     The spacing between the different values of the independent variable

278. Precision - 精确度
     How close two or more measurements of the same value are to each other

279. Range - 范围
     The spread between the lowest and highest values of the independent variable

280. Replicates - 重复实验
     Two or more trials of the same experiment, using the same materials and apparatus

281. Standardised variables - 标准化变量
     All variables (factors) that are kept constantin an experiment, which otherwise might affect the dependent variable

282. Bar chart - 柱状图
     A graph in which the categories on the x-axis are discontinuous – i.e., entirely separate from one another; the bars are drawn with spaces between them

283. Continuous variable - 连续变量
     A variable which can have any value within a range

284. Discontinuous variable - 离散变量
     A variable in which the different categories are separate from one another

285. Histogram - 直方图
     A graph in which the categories on the x-axis are continuous; the bars are drawn with no gaps between them

286. Random error - 随机误差
     A source of uncertainty in your results that gives incorrect values that can be of different magnitudes and err in different direction; random errors can affect trends shown by results

287. Systematic error - 系统误差
     A source of uncertainty in your results that gives incorrect values that are always the same magnitude and always err in the same direction; systematic errors do not affect trends shown by results

288. Interquartile range - 四分位距
     The range of values not including the top quartile and the bottom quartile

Respiration#

289. Anabolic - 合成代谢
     A chemical reaction in which small molecules are built up into larger ones

290. Respiration - 呼吸
     The enzymatic release of energy from organic compounds in living cells

291. ATP synthase - ATP合酶
     The enzyme that catalyses the phosphorylation of ADP to produce ATP

292. Chemiosmosis - 化学渗透
     The synthesis of ATP using energy released by the movement of hydrogen ions down their concentration gradient, across a membrane in a mitochondrion or chloroplast

293. Coenzyme A (CoA) - 辅酶A (CoA)
     A molecule that supplies acetyl groups required for the link reaction

294. Acetyl coenzyme A - 乙酰辅酶A
     A molecule made up of coenzyme A and a 2C acetyl group, important in the link reaction

295. Decarboxylation - 脱羧
     The removal of carbon dioxide from a substance

296. Dehydrogenation - 脱氢
     The removal of hydrogen from a substance

297. Electron transport chain - 电子传递链
     A chain of adjacently arranged carrier molecules in the inner mitochondrial membrane, along which electrons pass by redox reactions

298. Glycolysis - 糖酵解
     The splitting (lysis) of glucose; the first stage in respiration

299. Krebs cycle - 克雷布斯循环
     A cycle of reactions in aerobic respiration in the matrix of a mitochondrion in which hydrogens pass to hydrogen carriers for subsequent ATP synthesis and some ATP is synthesised directly; also known as the citric acid cycle

300. Link reaction - 连接反应
     Decarboxylation and dehydrogenation of pyruvate, resulting in the formation of acetyl coenzyme A, linking glycolysis with the Krebs cycle

301. NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) - 烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸 (NAD)
     A hydrogen carrier used in respiration

302. Oxidation - 氧化
     The addition of oxygen, or the removal of hydrogen or electrons from a substance

303. Oxidative phosphorylation - 氧化磷酸化
     The synthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi using energy from oxidation reactions in aerobic respiration (compare photophosphorylation)

304. Phosphorylation - 磷酸化
     The addition of a phosphate group to a molecule

305. Redox reaction - 氧化还原反应
     A chemical reaction in which one substance is reduced and another is oxidised

306. Reduction - 还原
     The removal of oxygen, or the addition of hydrogen or electrons to a substance

307. Substrate-linked reaction - 底物水平磷酸化
     In the context of ATP formation, the transfer of phosphate from a substrate molecule directly to ADP to produce ATP, using energy provided directly by another chemical reaction

308. Aerenchyma - 通气组织
     Plant tissue containing air spaces

309. Anaerobic - 厌氧
     Without oxygen

310. Ethanol fermentation - 乙醇发酵
     Anaerobic respiration in which pyruvate is converted to ethanol

311. Lactate fermentation - 乳酸发酵
     Anaerobic respiration in which pyruvate is converted to lactate

312. Redox indicator - 氧化还原指示剂
     A substance that changes colour when it is oxidised or reduced

313. Respiratory quotient (RQ) - 呼吸商 (RQ)
     The ratio of the volume of carbon dioxide produced to the volume of oxygen used

314. Respirometer - 呼吸计
     A piece of apparatus that can be used to measure the rate of oxygen uptake by respiring organisms

315. Calvin cycle - 卡尔文循环
     A cycle of reactions in the light-dependent stage of photosynthesis in which carbon dioxide is reduced to form carbohydrate

Photosynthesis#

316. Chlorophyll - 叶绿素
     A green pigment responsible that absorbs energy from light, used in photosynthesis

317. Light-dependent stage - 光反应阶段
     The first series of reactions that take place in photosynthesis; it requires energy absorbed from light

318. Light-independent stage - 暗反应阶段
     The final series of reactions that take place in photosynthesis; it does not require light but does need substances that are produced in the light- dependent stage

319. NADP - 烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸磷酸 (NADP)
     A coenzyme that transfers hydrogen from one substance to another, in the reactions of photosynthesis

320. Photolysis - 光解
     Splitting a water molecule, using energy from lightH2O → 2H+ + 2e− + O2

321. Photophosphorylation - 光磷酸化
     Producing ATP using energy that originated as light

322. Absorption spectrum - 吸收光谱
     A graph showing the absorbance of different wavelengths of light by a photosynthetic pigment

323. Action spectrum - 作用光谱
     A graph showing the effect of different wavelengths of light on a process, e.g. the rate of photosynthesis

324. Chromatography - 色谱法
     A technique that can separate substances in a mixture according to their solubility in a solvent

325. Lamellae - 层状体
     Membranes found within a chloroplast

326. Photosynthetic pigments - 光合色素
     Coloured substances that absorb light of particular wavelengths, supplying energy to drive the reactions in the light-dependent stage of photosynthesis

327. Photosystem - 光系统
     A cluster of light-harvesting pigments surrounding a reaction centre

328. Reaction centre - 反应中心
     The part of a photosystem towards which energy from light is funnelled; it contains a pair of chlorophyll a molecules, which absorb the energy and emit electrons

329. Rf value - Rf值
     A number that indicateshow far a substance travels during chromatography, calculated by dividing the distance travelled by the substance by the distance travelled by the solvent; Rf values can be used to identify the substance

330. Stroma - 基质
     The background material in a chloroplast in which the light-independent stage of photosynthesis takes place

331. Thylakoid membranes - 类囊体膜
     The membranes inside a chloroplast that enclose fluid-filled sacs; the light-dependent stage of photosynthesis takes place in these membranes

332. Thylakoid spaces - 类囊体空间
     Fluid-filled sacs enclosed by the thylakoid membranes

333. Cyclic photophosphorylation - 环式光磷酸化
     The production of ATP using energy from light, involving only photosystem I

334. Non-cyclic photophosphorylation - 非环式光磷酸化
     The production ATP using energy from light, involving both photosystem I and photosystem II; this process also produces reduced NADP

335. Oxygen-evolving complex - 产氧复合体
     An enzyme found in photosystem II that catalyses the breakdown of water, using energy from light

336. Photoactivation - 光激活
     The emission of an electron from a molecule as a result of the absorption of energy from light

337. Glycerate-3-phosphate (GP) - 甘油酸-3-磷酸 (GP)
     A three-carbon compound which is formed when RuBP combines with carbon dioxide

338. Ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) - 核酮糖-1,5-二磷酸 (RuBP)
     A five-carbon phosphorylated sugar which is the first compound to combine with carbon dioxide during the light- independent stage of photosynthesis

339. Rubisco - 核酮糖二磷酸羧化酶/加氧酶 (Rubisco)
     The enzyme that catlalyses the combinbation of RuBP with carbon dioxide

340. Triose phosphate (TP) - 磷酸丙糖 (TP)
     A three-carbon phosphorylated sugar, the first carbohydrate to be formed during the light-independent stage of photosynthesis

341. Limiting factor - 限制因素
     The requirement for a process to take place that is in the shortest supply; an increase in this factor will allow the process to take place more rapidly

Homeostasis#

316. Corrective action - 纠正措施
     A response or series of responses that return a physiological factor to the set point so maintaining a constant environment for the cells within the body

317. Deamination - 脱氨
     The breakdown of excess amino acids in the liver, by the removal of the amine group; ammonia and, eventually, urea are formed from the amine group

318. Effector - 效应器
     A tissue or organ that carries out an action in response to a stimulus; muscles and glands are effectors

319. Excretion - 排泄
     The removal of toxic or waste products of metabolism from the body

320. Homeostasis - 体内平衡
     The maintenance of a relatively constant environment for the cells within the body

321. Hormone - 激素
     A substance secreted by an endocrine gland that is carried in blood plasma to another part of the body where it has an effect

322. Negative feedback - 负反馈
     A process in which a change in some parameter (e.g. blood glucose concentration) brings about processes which return it towards normal

323. Positive feedback - 正反馈
     A process in which a change in some parameter such as a physiological factor brings about processes that move its level even further in the direction of the initial change

324. Receptor - 受体
     A cell or tissue that is sensitive to a specific stimulus and communicates with a control centre by generating nerve impulses or sending a chemical messenger

325. Set point - 设定点
     The ideal value of a physiological factor that the body controls in homeostasis

326. Stimulus - 刺激
     (plural stimuli) a change in the external or internal environment that is detected by a receptor and which may cause a response

327. Urea - 尿素
     A nitrogenous excretory product produced in the liver from the deamination of amino acids

328. Afferent arteriole - 入球小动脉
     Arteriole leading to glomerular capillaries

329. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) - 抗利尿激素 (ADH)
     Hormone secreted from the pituitary gland that increases water reabsorption in the kidneys and therefore reduces water loss in urine

330. Bowman’s capsule - 鲍曼囊
     The cup-shaped part of a nephron that surrounds a glomerulus and collects filtrate from the blood

331. Collecting duct - 集合管
     Tube in the medulla of the kidney that carries urine from the distal convoluted tubules of many nephrons to the renal pelvis

332. Distal convoluted tubule - 远曲小管
     Part of the nephron that leads from the loop of Henle to the collecting duct

333. Efferent arteriole - 出球小动脉
     Arteriole leading away from glomerular capillaries

334. Glomerulus - 肾小球
     (plural glomeruli) a group of capillaries within the ‘cup’ of a Bowman’s capsule in the cortex of the kidney

335. Loop of Henle - 亨利氏袢
     The part of the nephron between the proximal and distal convoluted tubules

336. Nephron - 肾单位
     The structural and functional unit of the kidney composed of Bowman’s capsule and a tubule divided into three regionsproximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle and distal convoluted tubule

337. Podocyte - 足细胞
     One of the cells that makes up the lining of Bowman’s capsule surrounding the glomerular capillaries

338. Proximal convoluted tubule - 近曲小管
     Part of the nephron that leads from Bowman’s capsule to the loop of Henle

339. Selective reabsorption - 选择性重吸收
     Movement of certain substances from the filtrate in nephrons back into the blood

340. Ultrafiltration - 超滤
     Filtration on a molecular scale separating small molecules from larger molecules, such as proteins (e.g. the filtration that occurs as blood flows through capillaries, especially those in glomeruli in the kidney)

341. Osmoreceptor - 渗透感受器
     Type of receptor that detects changes in the water potential of blood

342. Osmoregulation - 渗透调节
     The control of the water potential of blood and tissue fluid by controlling the water content and/or the concentration of ions, particularly sodium ions

343. Adenylyl cyclise - 腺苷酸环化酶
     Enzyme that catalyses formation of the second messenger cyclic AMP

344. Biosensor - 生物传感器
     A device that uses a biological material such as an enzyme to measure the concentration of a chemical compound

345. Cyclic AMP (c-AMP) - 环磷酸腺苷 (cAMP)
     A second messenger in cell– signalling pathways

346. Glucagon - 胰高血糖素
     A small peptide hormone secreted by the α cells in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas to bring about an increase in the concentration of glucose in the blood

347. Gluconeogenesis - 糖异生
     The formation of glucose in the liver from non-carbohydrate sources such as amino acids, pyruvate, lactate and glycerol

348. Glycogenesis - 糖原合成
     Synthesis of glycogen by addition of glucose monomers

349. Glycogenolysis - 糖原分解
     The breakdown of glycogen by removal of glucose monomers

350. Insulin - 胰岛素
     A small peptide hormone secreted by the β cells in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas to bring about a decrease in the concentration of glucose in the blood

351. Islet of Langerhans - 朗格汉斯岛
     A group of cells in the pancreas which secrete insulin and glucagon

352. Phosphorylase kinase - 磷酸化酶激酶
     An enzyme that is part of the enzyme cascade that acts in response to glucagon; the enzyme activates glycogen phosphorylase by adding a phosphate group

353. Protein kinase A - 蛋白激酶A
     Enzyme that is activated by c-AMP and once activated adds phosphate groups to other proteins, including phosphorylasekinase, to activate them

354. Abscisic acid (ABA) - 脱落酸 (ABA)
     An inhibitory plant growth regulator that causes closure of stomata in dry conditions

355. Electrochemical gradient - 电化学梯度
     A gradient across a cell surface membrane that involves both a difference in concentrations of ions and a potential difference

356. Guard cell - 保卫细胞
     A sausage-shaped epidermal cell found with another, in a pair bounding a stoma and controlling its opening or closure

357. Endocrine gland - 内分泌腺
     An organ that secretes hormones directly into the blood; endocrine glands are also known as ductless glands

358. Endocrine system - 内分泌系统
     Consists of all the endocrine glands in the body together with the hormones that they secrete

Control and Coordination#

316. Acetylcholine (ACh) - 乙酰胆碱 (ACh)
     A molecule made up of coenzyme A and a 2C acetyl group, important in the link reaction; a type of neurotransmitter released by cholinergic synapses

317. Acetylcholinesterase - 乙酰胆碱酯酶
     An enzyme in the synaptic cleft and on the postsynaptic membrane that hydrolyses ACh to acetate and choline

318. Action potential - 动作电位
     A brief change in the potential difference from –70 mV to +30 mV across the cell surface membranes of neurones and muscle cells caused by the inward movement of sodium ions

319. All-or-none law - 全或无定律
     Neurones and muscle cells only transmit impulses if the initial stimulus is sufficient to increase the membrane potential above a threshold potential

320. Chemoreceptor - 化学感受器
     A receptor cell that responds to chemical stimuli; chemoreceptors are found in taste buds on the tongue, in the nose and in bloodvessels where they detect changes in oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations

321. Cholinergic synapse - 胆碱能突触
     A synapse at which the transmitter substance is ACh

322. Depolarisation - 去极化
     The reversal of the resting potential across the cell surface membrane of a neurone or muscle cell, so that the inside becomes positively charged compared with the outside

323. Motor neurone - 运动神经元
     A neurone whose cell body is in the brain, spinal cord or a ganglion (a swelling on a nerve), and that transmits nerve impulses to an effector such as a muscle or gland

324. Myelin - 髓鞘
     Insulating material that surrounds the axons of many neurones; myelin is made of layers of cell surface membranes formed by Schwann cells so that they are very rich in phospholipids and therefore impermeable to water and ions in tissue fluid

325. Nerve impulse - 神经冲动
     (usually shortened to impulse) a wave of electrical depolarisation that is transmitted along neurones

326. Neuromuscular junction - 神经肌肉接头
     A synapse between a motor neurone and a muscle

327. Neurone - 神经元
     Anerve cell; a cell which is specialised for the conduction of nerve impulses

328. Neurotransmitter - 神经递质
     A chemical released at synapses to transmit impulses between neurones or between a motor neurone and a muscle fibre

329. Node of Ranvier - 郎飞结
     A very short gap between Schwann cells where myelinated axons are not covered in myelin so are exposed to tissue fluid

330. Noradrenaline - 去甲肾上腺素
     A type of neurotransmitter, which is also released by cells in the adrenal glands as a hormone

331. Postsynaptic neurone - 突触后神经元
     The neurone on the opposite side of a synapse to the neurone in which the action potential arrives

332. Potential difference - 电位差
     The difference in electrical potential between two points; in the nervous system, between the inside and the outside of a cell surface membrane such as the membrane that encloses an axon

333. Presynaptic neurone - 突触前神经元
     A neurone ending at a synapse from which neurotransmitter is released when an action potential arrives

334. Receptor potential - 受体电位
     A change in the normal resting potential across the membrane of a receptor cell, caused by a stimulus

335. Receptor protein - 受体蛋白
     A protein on a postsynaptic membrane that is a ligand-gated channel protein opening in response to binding of a neurotransmitter

336. Refractory period - 不应期
     A period of time during which a neurone is recovering from an action potential, and during which another action potential cannot be generated

337. Repolarisation - 复极化
     Returning the potential difference across the cell surface membrane of a neurone or muscle cell to normal following the depolarisation of an action potential

338. Resting potential - 静息电位
     The difference in electrical potential that is maintained across the cell surface membrane of a neurone when it is not transmitting an action potential; it is normally about –70 mV inside and is partly maintained by sodium–potassium pumps

339. Saltatory conduction - 跳跃传导
     Movement of an action potential along a myelinated axon, in which the action potential ‘jumps’ from one node of Ranvier to the next

340. Sensory neurone - 感觉神经元
     A neurone that transmits nerve impulses from a receptor to the central nervous system

341. Synapse - 突触
     A point at which two neurones meet but do not touch; the synapse is made up of the end of the presynaptic neurone, the synaptic cleft and the end of the postsynaptic neurone

342. Synaptic cleft - 突触间隙
     A very small gap between two neurones at a synapse; nerve impulses are transmitted across synaptic clefts by neurotransmitters

343. Threshold potential - 阈电位
     The critical potential difference across the cell surface membrane of a sensory receptor or neurone which must be reached before an action potential is initiated

344. Voltage-gated channel protein - 电压门控通道蛋白
     A channel protein through a cell membrane that opens or closes in response to changes in electrical potential across the membrane

345. Voltage-gated calcium ion channel protein - 电压门控钙离子通道蛋白
     A channel protein in presynaptic membranes that responds to depolarisation by opening to allow diffusion of calcium ions down their electrochemical gradient

346. Actin - 肌动蛋白
     The protein that makes up the thin filaments in striated muscle

347. Myofibril - 肌原纤维
     One of many cylindrical bundles of thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filaments inside a muscle fibre

348. Myosin - 肌球蛋白
     The protein that makes up the thick filaments in striated muscle; the globular heads of each molecule break down ATP (they act as an ATP-ase)

349. Sarcolemma - 肌膜
     The cell surface membrane of a muscle fibre

350. Sarcomere - 肌节
     The part of amyofibril between two Z discs

351. Sarcoplasm - 肌质
     The cytoplasm of muscle cells

352. Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) - 肌浆网 (SR)
     The endoplasmic reticulum of muscle fibre

353. Sliding filament model - 滑动丝模型
     The mechanism of muscle contraction; within each sarcomere the movement of thin filaments closer together by the action of myosin heads in the thick filaments shortens the overall length of each muscle fibre

354. Striated muscle - 横纹肌
     Type of muscle tissue in skeletal muscles; the muscle fibres have regular striations that can be seen under the light microscope

355. Transverse system tubule (or T-system tubule or T-tubule) - 横管系统 (T系统或T管)
     Infolding of the sarcolemma that goes deep into a muscle fibre and conducts impulses to the SR

356. Tropomyosin - 原肌球蛋白
     A fibrous protein that is part of the thin filaments in myofibrils in striated muscle; tropomyosin blocks the attachment site on the thin filament for myosin heads so preventing the formation of cross-bridges

357. Troponin - 肌钙蛋白
     A calcium-binding protein that is part of the thin filaments in myofibrils in striated muscle

358. Aleurone layer - 糊粉层
     A layer of tissue around the endosperm that synthesises amylase during germination

359. Auxin - 生长素
     A plant growth regulator (plant hormone) that stimulates cell elongation

360. Endosperm - 胚乳
     A tissue in some seeds, such as barley, that is a store of starch and other nutrients

361. Expansins - 伸展蛋白
     Proteins in the cell walls of plants that loosen the attachment of microfibrils of cellulose during elongation growth

362. Gibberellin - 赤霉素
     A plant growth regulator (plant hormone) that stimulates seed germination and regulates plant height (stem growth); a lack of gibberellin causes dwarfness

363. Plant growth regulator (plant hormone) - 植物生长调节剂 (植物激素)
     Any chemical produced in plants that influences their growth and development (e.g. auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins and ABA)

364. Bivalent - 二价体
     Two homologous chromosomes lying alongside each other during meiosis I

365. **Chiasma ** - 交叉点
     (plural chiasmata) a position at which non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes cross over each other

366. Crossing over - 交叉互换
     The exchange of alleles between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes during meiosis I

367. Diploid - 二倍体
     Containing two complete sets of chromosomes; can be signified by the symbol 2n

368. Fertilisation - 受精
     The fusing of the nuclei of two gametes, to form a zygote

369. Gamete - 配子
     A sex cell; during sexual reproduction, two gametes fuse together to form a zygote; gametes are usually haploid

370. Haploid - 单倍体
     Containing one complete set of chromosomes; can be signified by the symbol n

371. Homologous chromosomes - 同源染色体
     Two chromosomes that carry the same genes in the same positions

372. Meiosis - 减数分裂
     Nuclear division that results in the production of four daughter cells with half the chromosome number of the parent cell and with reshuffled alleles; in animals and plants it results in the formation of gametes

373. Reduction division - 减数分裂
     Nuclear division that results in a reduction in chromosome number; the first division of meiosis is a reduction division

374. Sexual reproduction - 有性生殖
     Reproduction involving the fusion of gametes (fertilisation) to produce a zygote

375. Zygote - 合子
     A cell formed by the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes; most zygotes are diploid

376. Allele - 等位基因
     A variety of a gene

377. Independent assortment - 独立分配
     The production of different combinations of alleles in daughter cells, as a result of the random alignment of bivalents on the equator of the spindle during metaphase I of meiosis

378. Locus - 基因座
     The position of a gene on a chromosome

379. Genotype - 基因型
     The alleles possessed by an organism

380. Heterozygous - 杂合子
     Having two different alleles of a gene

381. Homozygous - 纯合子
     Having two identical alleles of a gene

382. Phenotype - 表现型
     The observable features of an organism; it is affected by genes and also by environment

383. Codominant - 共显性
     Codominant alleles each affect phenotype when both of them are present

384. Dominant - 显性
     A dominant allele has the same effect on phenotype, whether or not another allele is present

385. F1 generation - F1代
     The offspring resulting from the cross between individuals with a homozygous recessive and a homozygous dominant genotype

386. F2 generation - F2代
     The offspring resulting from across between two F1 individuals

387. Genetic diagram - 遗传图
     A standard format in which the results of a genetic cross are predicted and explained

388. Monohybrid inheritance - 单基因遗传
     Inheritance of one gene

389. Multiple alleles - 多等位基因
     The existence of three or more alleles of a gene, as, e.g., in the determination of A,B,O blood groups

390. Punnett square - 庞尼特方格
     Part of a genetic diagram in which the genotypes of the offspring are worked out from the genotypes of the gametes

391. Recessive - 隐性
     A recessive allele only affects phenotype if no dominant allele is present

392. Sex chromosomes - 性染色体
     The chromosomes that determine sex; in humans, these are the X and Y chromosomes

393. Test cross - 测交
     A genetic cross in which an organism showing a characteristic caused by a dominant allele is crossed with an organism showing the dominant characteristic is crossed with a homozygous recessive organism; the phenotypes of the offspring can indicate whether the original organism is homozygous or heterozygous

394. Autosomal linkage - 常染色体连锁
     The presence of two genes on the same autosome, (any chromosome other than a sex chromosome) so that they tend to be inherited together and do not assort independently

395. Carrier - 携带者
     An individual that possesses a particular allele as a single copy whose effect is masked by a dominant allele, so that the associated characteristic (such as a hereditary disease) is not displayed but maybe passed to offspring

396. Dihybrid inheritance - 双基因遗传
     The inheritance of two genes

397. Epistasis - 上位性
     The interaction of two genes at different loci; one gene may affect the expression of the other

398. Parental type - 亲本型
     Offspring that show the same combinations of characteristics as their parents

399. Recombinant - 重组型
     Offspring that show different combinations of characteristics from their parents

400. Sex-linked gene - 性连锁基因
     A gene found on a region of a sex chromosome that is not present on the other sex chromosome; in humans, most sex-linked genes are found on the X chromosome

401. Linkage - 连锁
     See autosomal linkage; see sex-linked gene

402. Chi-squared (χ2) test - 卡方 (χ2) 检验
     A statistical test that can be used to determine whether differences between observed and expected results are significant

403. Inducible enzyme - 诱导酶
     An enzyme that is synthesised only when its substrate is present

404. Lac operon - 乳糖操纵子
     An operon found in some bacteria that controls the production of β-galactosidase and two other structural proteins

405. Operon - 操纵子
     A functional unit of transcription; acluster of genes that are controlled by the same promoter

406. Regulatory gene - 调控基因
     A gene that codes for a protein that helps to control the expression of other genes

407. Repressible enzyme - 可抑制酶
     An enzyme that is normally produced, and whose synthesis is prevented by the presence of an effector

408. Structural gene - 结构基因
     A gene that codes for a protein that has a function within a cell

409. Transcription factor - 转录因子
     A molecule that affects whether or not a gene is transcribed

410. Β-galactosidase - β-半乳糖苷酶
     An enzyme that catalyses the hydrolysis of lactose to glucose and galactose

411. Continuous variation - 连续变异
     Differences between individuals of a species in which each one can lie at any point in the range between the highest and lowest values

412. Discontinuous variation - 非连续变异
     Differences between individuals of a species in which each one belongs to one of a small number of distinct categories, with no intermediates

413. Genetic variation - 遗传变异
     Differences between the DNA base sequences of individuals within a species

414. Phenotypic variation - 表型变异
     Differences between the observable characteristics of individuals within a species

415. Polygenes - 多基因
     A number of different genes at different loci that all contribute to a particular aspect of phenotype

416. Abiotic factor - 非生物因素
     An environmental factor that is caused by non-living components (e.g. soil pH, light intensity)

417. Biotic factor - 生物因素
     An environmental factor that is caused by living organisms (e.g. predation, competition)

418. Competition - 竞争
     The need for aresource by two organisms, when that resource is in short supply

419. Directional selection - 定向选择
     Natural selection that causes a gradual change in allele frequency over many generations

420. Disruptive selection - 破坏性选择
     Natural selection that maintains relatively high frequencies of two different sets of alleles; individuals with intermediate features and allele sets are not selected for

421. Environmental factor - 环境因素
     A feature of the environment of an organism that affects its survival

422. Fitness - 适应度
     The ability of an organism to survive and reproduce

423. Natural selection - 自然选择
     The process by which individuals with a particular set of alleles are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with other alleles; overtime and many generations, the advantageous alleles become more frequent in the population

424. Polymorphism - 多态性
     The continued existence of two or more different phenotypes in a species

425. Selection pressure - 选择压力
     An environmental factor that affects the chance of survival of an organism; organisms with one phenotype are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with a different phenotype

426. Stabilising selection - 稳定选择
     Natural selection that tends to keep allele frequencies relatively constant over many generations

427. Bottleneck (evolutionary) - 瓶颈效应 (进化)
     A period when the numbers of a species fall to a very low level, resulting in the loss of a large number of alleles and therefore a reduction in the gene pool of the species

428. Founder effect - 奠基者效应
     The reduction in a gene pool compared with the main populations of a species, resulting from only two or three individuals (with only a selection of the alleles in the gene pool) starting off a new population

429. Gene pool - 基因库
     The complete range of DNA base sequences in all the organisms in a species or population

430. Genetic drift - 遗传漂变
     The gradual change in allele frequencies in a small population, where some alleles are lost or favoured just by chance and not by natural selection

431. Artificial selection - 人工选择
     The selection by humans of organisms with desired traits to survive and reproduce; also known as selective breeding

432. Hybrid vigour - 杂种优势
     An increased ability to survive and grow well, as a result of outbreeding and therefore increased heterozygosity

433. Inbreeding - 近亲繁殖
     Breeding between organisms with similar genotypes, or that are closely related

434. Inbreeding depression - 近交衰退
     A loss of the ability to survive and grow well, due to breeding between close relatives; this increases the chance of harmful recessive alleles coming together in an individual and being expressed

435. Outbreeding - 异交
     Breeding between individuals that are not closely related

436. Selective breeding - 选择性育种
     See artificial selection

437. Allopatric speciation - 异域物种形成
     The development of new species following geographical isolation

438. Behavioural separation - 行为隔离
     The separation of two populations because they have different behaviours which prevent them breeding together

439. Ecological separation - 生态隔离
     The separation of two populations because they live in different environments in the same area and so cannot breed together

440. Evolution - 进化
     A process leading to the formation of new species from pre-existing species overtime

441. Genetically isolated - 遗传隔离
     No longer able to breed together; there is no exchange of genes

442. Geographical isolation - 地理隔离
     Separation by a geographical barrier, such as a stretch of water or a mountain range

443. Morphological - 形态学
     Relating to structural features

444. Physiological - 生理学
     Relating to metabolic and other processes in a living organism

445. Reproductive isolation - 生殖隔离
     The inability of two groups of organisms to breed with one another; two populations of the same species maybe geographically separated, or two different species are unable to breed to produce fertile offspring

446. Speciation - 物种形成
     The production of new species

447. Sympatric speciation - 同域物种形成
     The development of new species without any geographical separation

448. Animalia - 动物界
     Kingdom of eukaryotic organisms which are multicellular and heterotrophic and have a nervous system

449. Archaea - 古菌
     The domain of prokaryotic organisms that resemble bacteria but share some features with eukaryotes

450. Bacteria - 细菌
     The domain that contains all prokaryotic organisms except those classified as Archaea

451. Biological classification - 生物分类
     The organisation of living and extinct organisms into systematic groups based on similarities and differences between species

452. Biological species - 生物种
     A group of organisms with similar morphology and physiology, which can breed together to produce fertile offspring and are reproductively isolated from other species

453. Domain - 域
     The highest taxonomic rank

454. Ecological species - 生态种
     A population of individuals of the same species living in the same area at the sametime

455. Eukarya - 真核生物域
     The domain that contains all eukaryotic organismsprotoctists, fungi, plants and animals

456. Fungi - 真菌
     Kingdom of eukaryotic organisms which do not photosynthesise and have cell walls but without cellulose

457. Hierarchical classification - 分层分类
     The arrangement of organisms into groups of different rank. The lowest rank is the species; similar species are grouped together into the next rank, which is the genus; this continues to the highest rank, which is the domain where many species are grouped together

458. Kingdom - 界
     The taxonomic rank below domain

459. Morphological species - 形态种
     A group of organisms that share many physical features that distinguish them from other species

460. Plantae - 植物界
     Kingdom of eukaryotic organisms which are multicellular, have cell walls that contain cellulose and can photosynthesise

461. Population - 种群
     All of the organisms of the same species present in the same place and at the sametime that can interbreed with one another

462. Protoctist - 原生生物
     A member of the Protoctista kingdom

463. Protoctista - 原生生物界
     Kingdom of eukaryotic organisms which are single-celled or made up of groups of similar cells

464. Taxon - 分类单元
     (pluraltaxa) a taxonomic group of any rank, such as a particular species (e.g. Giraffa camelopardalis), a family (e.g. Elephantidae), a class (e.g. Mammalia) or a kingdom (e.g. Plantae)

465. Taxonomic rank - 分类等级
     One of the groups used in the hierarchical classification system for organisms, e.g. species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom and domain

466. Taxonomy - 分类学
     The study and practice of naming and classifying species and groups of species within the hierarchical classification scheme

467. Species - 物种
     See biological species

468. Biodiversity - 生物多样性
     The variety of ecosystems and species in an area and the genetic diversity within each species

469. Community - 群落
     All of the living organisms, of all species, that are found in a particular ecosystem at a particular time

470. Ecosystem - 生态系统
     A relatively self-contained, interacting community of organisms, and the environment in which they live and with which they interact

471. Genetic diversity - 遗传多样性
     All the alleles of all the genes in the genome of a species

472. Habitat - 栖息地
     The place where an organism, a population or a community lives

473. Mark–release–recapture - 标记-释放-再捕获
     A method of estimating the numbers of individuals in a population of mobile animals

474. Niche - 生态位
     The role of an organism in an ecosystem

475. Pearson’slinear correlation - 皮尔逊线性相关
     A statistical test used to determine if there is a linear correlation between two variables that are normally distributed

476. Quadrat - 样方
     A square frame which is used to mark out an area for sampling populations of organisms

477. Random sampling - 随机抽样
     Method of investigating the abundance and/or distribution of populations which is determined by chance and shows no bias on the part of the person carrying out the sampling

478. Simpson’sindexof diversity (D) - 辛普森多样性指数 (D)
     Used to calculate the biodiversity of a habitat; the range of values is 0 (low biodiversity) to 1 (high biodiversity)

479. Spearman’srank correlation - 斯皮尔曼等级相关
     A statistical test to determine if there is a correlation between two variables when one or both of them are not normally distributed

480. Species diversity - 物种多样性
     All the species in an ecosystem

481. Systematic sampling - 系统抽样
     Anon-random method of investigating the abundance and/or distribution of populations in which the position of sampling points are determined by the person carrying out the sampling (e.g. at every 2 m)

482. Transect - 样带
     A line marked by a tape measure along which samples are taken, either by noting the species at equal distances (line transect) or placing quadrats at regular intervals (belt transect)

483. Artificial insemination (AI) - 人工授精 (AI)
     Injection of semen collected from a male into the uterus

484. Assisted reproduction - 辅助生殖
     Any technique that is involved in treating infertility or protecting a female mammal of an endangered species from the health risks of pregnancy

485. Embryo transfer - 胚胎移植
     Embryos are removed from the uterus of a female mammal of an endangered species shortly after fertilisation and transferred to surrogate females to bring to full term

486. Frozen zoo - 冻存动物园
     A facility where genetic materials taken from animals are stored at very low temperatures (–196 °C); sperm, eggs, embryos and tissue samples are examples of these genetic materials

487. In vitro fertilisation (IVF) - 体外受精 (IVF)
     The fertilisation of an egg that occurs outside the body of a female (e.g. in a Petri dish)

488. Seed bank - 种子库
     Facility where seeds are dried and kept in cold storage to conserve plant biodiversity

489. Surrogacy - 代孕
     A female becomes pregnant with an embryo from another female and carries it to full term; embryos can be conceived naturally, by AI or by IVF

490. Alien species - 外来物种
     A species that has been moved into a new ecosystem where it was previously unknown; also known as invasive species

491. Genetic engineering - 基因工程
     Any procedure in which the genetic information in an organism is changed by altering the base sequence of a gene or by introducing a gene from another organism; the organism is then said to be a genetically modified organism (GMO)

492. Genetically modified organism (GMO) - 转基因生物 (GMO)
     Any organism that has had its DNA changed in away that does not occur naturally or by selective breeding

493. Recombinant DNA (rDNA) - 重组DNA (rDNA)
     DNA made by artificially joining together pieces of DNA from two or more different species

494. Transgenic organism - 转基因生物
     Any organism that contains DNA from another source, such as from another individual of the same species or from a different species

495. Vector - 载体
     A means of delivering genes into a cell, used in gene technology; e.g. plasmids and viruses; see also

496. Bacteriophage (phage) - 噬菌体 (噬菌体)
     A type of virus that infects bacteria; phages have double-stranded DNA as their genetic material

497. Gene probe - 基因探针
     A length of DNA that has a complementary base sequence to another piece of DNA that you are trying to detect

498. Genome - 基因组
     The complete set of genes or genetic material present in a cell or an organism; the genome of a eukaryote includes the DNA in the nucleus and in the mitochondria; the genomes of plants include chloroplast DNA

499. Restriction endonuclease (restriction enzyme) - 限制性内切酶 (限制酶)
     An enzyme, originally derived from bacteria, that cuts DNA molecules; each type of restriction enzyme cuts only at a particular sequence of bases

500. Gene editing - 基因编辑
     A form of genetic engineering in which the genome of an organism can be changed by deleting, inserting or replacing a length of DNA using a method such as the Crispr/Cas9 system

501. Promoter - 启动子
     A length of DNA that includes the binding site for RNA polymerase where transcription of a gene or genes begins; in eukaryotes, promoters also have sites for binding of transcription factors

502. Gel electrophoresis - 凝胶电泳
     The separation of charged molecules (e.g. DNA) by differential movement through a gel in an electric field; the degree of movement is dependent on the mass of the fragments of DNA

503. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) - 聚合酶链反应 (PCR)
     An automated process that amplifies selected regions of DNA using alternate stages of polynucleotide separation (denaturation of DNA) and DNA synthesis catalysed by DNA polymerase

504. Bioinformatics - 生物信息学
     The collection, processing and analysis of biological information and data using computer software

505. DNA hybridisation - DNA杂交
     Binding together of two molecules of single-stranded DNA by complementary base pairing

506. **Microarray ** - 微阵列
     (also known as gene or DNA chips) slides that are printed with thousands of tiny spots in defined positions, with each spot containing a known DNA sequence; the DNA molecules attached to each slide act as probes to detect lengths of DNA or RNA with complementary sequences

507. Cystic fibrosis - 囊性纤维化
     A genetic disease caused by a recessive allele of the CFTR (cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator) gene

508. Gene therapy - 基因治疗
     Treatment of a genetic disorder by inserting genetically corrected cells into the body or introducing functioning genes directly into affected cells

509. Genetic screening - 遗传筛查
     Testing an embryo, fetus or adult to find out whether a particular allele is present

510. Bt toxin - Bt毒素
     Insecticidal toxin produced by the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis; the gene for Bt toxin is transferred to crop plants to make them resistant to insect pests

511. Hypothesis - 假设
     A tentative statement providing an explanation or prediction, based on a body of prior knowledge and testable by experiment

512. Prediction - 预测
     A statement about what you think might happen; a prediction could just be guesswork, but a good one is based on prior knowledge and an underlying hypothesis

513. Continuous data - 连续数据
     A set of data in which any individual reading can have any value between the two extremes

514. Control experiment - 对照实验
     An experiment in which the factor whose effect is being investigated (the independent variable) is absent; it is used as a standard of comparison

515. Discrete data - 离散数据
     A set of data in which each measurement can only belong to one of a limited number of values

516. Nominal data - 名义数据
     A set of data in which the individual results cannot be arranged in a sequence; instead, each is assigned to a distinct category

517. Ordinal data - 顺序数据
     A set of data in which, although the values are not numerical, the individual results can be arranged in a sequence

518. 95 percent confidence interval - 95%置信区间
     A range of values calculated as the mean ±2 × standard error; you can be 95% certain that the true mean lies within this range

519. Error bar - 误差条
     A line drawn through a point or the top of bar on a graph, extending two standard errors above and below the mean value indicated by the point or bar; you can be 95% certain that the true value lies within the range indicated by the error bar

520. Median - 中位数
     The middle value of all the values in the data set

521. Mode (modal class) - 众数 (众数类)
     The most common value, or class, in the set of results

522. Normal distribution - 正态分布
     A set of data in which a graph shows a symmetrical distribution around the central value

523. Null hypothesis - 零假设
     A statement saying that there is no association or difference between two sets of data

524. Standard deviation - 标准差
     A calculated value that indicateshow widely a set of data spreads out from the mean value

525. Standard error - 标准误差
     A calculation that indicateshow close the calculated mean value is likely to be to the true mean value

526. T-test - t检验
     A statistical procedure used to determine whether the means of two samples differ significantly

• Jayleen XU for providing the vocabulary sheet
• TomTheThuan for writing the script